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留学生assignment代写精选范文：“Emergency management”，这篇论文讨论了应急管理。应急管理，一般是为了应对突发事件和灾害的发生。很多灾难性事件都是突发的，有自然因素，也有人为因素，但后果都是非常可怕的，会给人们带来巨大的损失。不过要是及时应对，那么就能将灾难的危害降到最低。应急管理，关键就在于如何科学地管理。

The following report outlines the main concepts and principles of emergency management by defining, explaining and discussing topics related to emergency management and providing examples of these with real life situations. The report provides an overview of a wide range of emergency management situations and processes, and provides an insight into how important emergency management is, in so many different settings.

There are many different classifications of emergency events, after reading this paper, you should have an understanding of the different classifications of emergency scenarios, understand their impact and see the extent to which emergency services go to prevent, prepare, respond and recover from them, through an integration of management, planning, legislation and community support.

Due to the differing nature of context, conditions and circumstances, this subject has shown that the following states of emergency and disaster are widely defined, with vastly diverse wording but similar meaning.

An accident can be broadly defined as, an unfortunate event that occurs unexpectedly and unintentionally, generally by chance (Oxford, 2010). From an emergency management perspective however, an accident is often considered in numerical terms, in relation directly to casualty numbers. An accident is conceptually categorised as having a death toll or casualty list of between 1 and 1000 (Manock, 2009). This said however, accidents should not only be categorised by casualty numbers, with their impact having a wide ranging effect and devastation, such as economic impact, affect on the community and international ramifications.The Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster in Ukraine in 1986 is a good example to illustrate the above connotations of an accident. There were only 56 direct deaths; however the ongoing impact on the community has seen over 330,000 people re-settled and evacuated, 800,000 members of the community suffer radiation exposure and there have been 4000 directly related cancer deaths and an expected 100,000 more in the future. All of which has had an enormous economical impact due to the vacating of so much land, health and loss of international trade (IAEA).

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An emergency can be defined as, an unexpected event which places life and/or property in threat and requires a direct reaction through the utilisation of community resources and actions. The most important factors in evaluating the nature and meaning of an emergency is to take note of the sudden and un-prepared nature requiring the establishment of emergency cohesiveness and action. In the context of this subject, two perspectives have been established for attempting to better define and understand what an emergency is. Those two perspectives are; the perspective of emergency services and a sociological perspective.

An emergency from an emergency services perspective refers to a severe and significant interference directly effecting the population of a community which endangers or causes loss and/or damage and destruction to property which is far greater than the normal capacity of the specific emergency services and which requires unique mobilisation and establishment of resources other than those generally on hand to those emergency departments (Manock, 2009).

From a sociological perspective, an emergency is simply the dicrepancy in relationship to a severe and acute event and vulnerabilty of those effected.

The 2009 Black Saturday fires were an example of an emergency. There was up to as many as 400 individual fires on the 7th of Febuary 2009, caused by a number of serious issues such as arson, lighting and power lines. The extreme conditions and wind speeds quickly made the Black Saturday fires an emergency, with an Australia wide contingent and formation of emergency services made available and desperately needed, community resources and emergency services were pushed to their limit.

A disaster is a sudden disastrous emergency incident, of natural or manmade origin, bringing immense damage, loss or devastation (Oxford, 2010). A disaster often requires the joint effort of more than one community and/or state emergency service effort, as a disaster is generally beyond the coping capability of the community of which it effects and requires multiple emergency service modes.

The Haiti earthquake this year, 2010, is an example of a natural disaster. It was rated as a 7.0 on the richter scale and caused damage of catastrophic proportions, killing as many as a confirmed number 150,000 and leaving iver 400,000 members of the community and surrounding area homeless (Melia, 2009).

A man-made disaster, such as the act of arson in the lighting of huge fires in California in 2007 where a huge 18 seperate fires killed up to 10 people and forced atleast half a million members of the community into homlessness (Lemonick, 2008) or the Attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 by terrorists are just as prolific and damaging as those made naturally. Global warming it may be said is a combination of the two, the disasters which are caused by rising sea levels and global temperatures have been for many years growing and becoming more sudden and disastrous, placing more members of the global comunity, more often, in need of unexpected emergency services.

A catastrophe is an incident that affects the members of a community/society, or threatens to effect, resulting in losses of life and/or property and places the entire community at risk and unexpected, exceptional resources and skills are necessary, some of which may be required to be sought from other nations.

As the definition implies, a catastrophe is a disaster which affects a society in huge terms, on all faces. For example, the Earthquake in Haiti on the 12th of January had catastrophic affects and was the result of a catastrophic strength, 7.0 on the Richter scale, impact. The death toll and homeless rate as a direct result is well into the hundreds of thousands, and the emergency service and resources of the community were completely exhausted and the aid of the United Nations and some 20 international communities have been sought, offering food, aid, resources and military security (Dreazen, 2010).

A calamity refers to an event causing great and sudden damage or distress (Oxford, 2010).It has many of the same connotations as a disaster and a catastrophe.

A hazard refers to the possibility that an event or physical condition could be in the short-term or long-term, the source of harm to people, property, infrastructure and so forth (FEMA, 1997). There are two broad groups which hazards can be broken into; they are, man-made and natural. A man made hazard is an emergency or disaster which has been caused by a man-man hazard, such as the environmental disaster caused by the ocean liner the Pacific Adventurer which caused widespread damage to Moreton Island in 2009. A dormant volcano however would be an example of a natural hazard, one which must be monitored and recorded.

The likelihood and harshness of harmful and unfavourable effects that are a direct consequence of exposure to a hazard is known as a risk. The susceptibility and resilience of a community is also an important feature of risk. Susceptibility refers to the probability or likelihood of an emergency situation arising in a particular setting, while resilience refers to that settings ability to fight the emergency and recover effectively. For Instance, an area such as Marysville in Victoria is a highly dense area of bush and scrub and therefore is more susceptible to the risk of bushfire, however its resilience due to new PPRR and emergency planning joint strategies since the Black Saturday fires, make it an area which should have a high level of resilience.

The most obvious effects of emergencies to people are those that are physical. This includes things such as injury and death. While these are the most serious of the effects on people they are not the most common, as many people are left to pick up the pieces and deal with post-emergency events, often manifesting themselves in behavioural issues which can stay with a person forever. Behavioural effects can be attributed to a person losing a friend or family member or anyone who is close to them and plays a part in their life. Relocation due to homelessness and unemployment can also result from an emergency, where their livelihood is destroyed or damaged, leaving them to wondering how they will support themselves, a family, pay bills and so forth, often resulting in depression and other behavioural side effects. The loss of household and personal possessions is common and in many cases can be irreplaceable. The stress and trauma related to having things taken away from you and/or damaged, person or possession, can cause post traumatic stress which may stay with some people for life.

Community norms and the ways of life within them are created during times of structure and normality. Friendships are created, rules are formed and a level of comfort is produced which shapes the way a community operates and survives. During a time of emergency, this social normality is interrupted, and often the result is permanent. The loss of people within a community can have an effect on relationships and structures, while damage to property and the environment can force a completely new way of life to be created, using what is left or sourcing new opportunities. The economy, infrastructure, people and environment make up the physical aspect of a community, its spirit is what binds it. Any loss or damage through trauma or effects of an emergency has the ability to both negatively and positively affect the community, bringing it closer together or pushing it further away.

The effects of particular emergency situations vary, for instance a flood effects property, environment, infrastructure and the economy in different ways to a fire, but not necessarily in any less harsh terms. All of these are vulnerable to destruction and loss, however unlike human life, they can be replaced.

Particular emergency events require particular emergency management and planning, there is not an infinite number or type of emergency situations. It is for this reason that certain emergency planning can be directed to particular events. By creating and having set in place an emergency management system, and contingency plan for specific situations, it is possible to mitigate and prevent, learn from and recover after and during all emergency situations.

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