Paper代写：The Fracking－r51due

下面为大家整理一篇优秀的paper代写范文- The Fracking，供大家参考学习，这篇论文讨论了水力压裂法。水力压裂法，又称水力压裂法，是一种钻探技术，用于从更深的地面开采石油和天然气。经过50多年的发展，如今水力压裂技术已经成为水力压裂和水平钻井的结合，在美国广泛应用。这项技术在20世纪50年代被提出，在60年代就得到了完善。经过大量的实验和野外工作，它被确定为一种安全的获取石油的方法。

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Fracking, otherwise known as hydraulic fracturing, is a drilling technique used for the extraction of oil and natural gas from deeper levels of the ground. With over five decades of development, fracking nowadays has become the combination of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling, which is widely used in the United States (Hardy et al. 2014, pp. 2). Fracking involves drilling over one mile vertically into the ground where the oil or natural gas is detected. The depth of drilling can vary from 1.5 to 3 kilometers depending on the distribution of the oil and gas. After reaching the shale layers of the rocks, the direction of drilling turns horizontal by bending 90 degrees, enabling multiple wells to be built for one drilling site by extending horizontally. The wells are then secured with cement or steel pipes. A mixture of water, sand and chemicals (slickwater) is injected into the pipes under huge pressure, shattering the rock layers with sand and releasing the oil and gas between the rock layers (Norris et al. 2016, pp. 325). The chemical additives are used so that the pipes are protected from being damaged by the sand grains, causing leakage and pollution. Along with the gas and oil that is released through the pipers after rock fracturing, millions of gallons of liquid also return to the surface.

The United States is the first country in the world where fracking became popular and was adopted on a large scale. The technology was first theoretically proposed in the 1950s, and perfected in the 60s. after large amounts of experiments and field work, it was established as a safe way to obtain oil. Nowadays, the research is still ongoing in the field, exploring the possibility to drill deeper into the ground and extract oil from 5000 meters below ground. The popularity of fracking is primarily because of the high prices of imported fossil fuels that pushed the industry to explore new options domestically. In the years of 2000, there were around 276000 natural gas wells in the country, which double in number by 2010. Study has shown that over 15 million Americans have lived within a mile of a fracking site since 2000 (Davis & Fisk 2014, pp. 13). The US government and the energy industry in having high expectations of the oil and gas extraction from the shales, due to the rich resources found in the country. In the states of Colorado, Utah and Wyoming, the amount of oil locked within the shale layers is in billions of buckets. Due to its efficiency, fracking has become the most important technology applied in the energy sector of the United States. the enormous amounts of oil and natural gas that were not available originally became accessible through fracking. In addition, for many of the old wells, fracking is also able to reuse them and uncover the huge potential deeper underground(Zhang & Yang 2015, pp. 877). In the foreseeable future, over 90% of the oil and natural gas production in the United States would involve fracking. Thanks to fracking, United States has become the top oil and gas producer. By 2040, gas production in the US is expected to increase by over 50% with fracking related technologies prompting the development.

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Despite the successful records and promising future, fracking is negatively perceived by the public in general. According to a study conducted by (Holloway & Rudd 2013, pp.72), over 60% of media perceive fracking negatively due to the environmental concerns, while only less than 20% are completely supportive of it. There has not been a single law passed that regulates fracking in the United States. most of the debates initiated over the years failed to make an impact due to the lobbying of the oil and gas companies. As early as 2014, the US government had made a series of assessments regarding the impact of fracking, reaching the conclusion that the technology was “safe” (Darrah et al. 2014, pp.14077). However, the influence of fracking has been visible, with the most obvious case being the drinking water that can be lit due to the mixture with flammable gas cause by fracking. Indeed, the environmental implications of fracking should not be underestimated. In this report, the influence of fracking on the hydrosphere will be examined from different aspects of the technology, to foster a deeper understanding of how this technology is impacting and polluting the water cycles, as well as what can be done to stop the environmental damages.

2. IMPACTS OF FRACKING ON THE HYDROSPHERE

2.1 The Overall Water Cycle

Surface water plays a significant part in the regulation of the climate and the ecosystem. The water content in the atmosphere can block over 60% of solar radiation, and protect the earth from cooling down too much. Due to the high heat capacity of water, surface water bodies absorb heat in the summers so that the temperature would not rise too high, and release heat so that the winters are not too cold, either. Precipitation is cause by the vaporization of surface water, which seeps into the ground to form the underground water, which then flows into rivers, lakes and springs to form the water cycle (Schwartz 2013, pp.479). However, such a cycle only involves the upper portions of the underground water, while water from the deeper layers are not part of the cycle since it is too deep and isolated by the rock layers from the upper parts. The deeper underground water creates a supporting effect for the shallow underground water, without which the water level will drop in the surface water. With fracking, large amounts of fresh water are taken from the surface water system and added to the deeper levels underground, causing drastic declines in the surface water levels.

Fracking requires water, in huge amounts. To transfer the chemicals and sands and fracture the shale, water is the most convenient and safest way for fracking. Although there have been attempts in the development of fracking that does not require so much water, most fracking sites in the US still use water as the major carrier of grains into the rock layers (Moss 2013). On average, over 30 thousand fracking wells are built in the US annually, with each requiring two to five million gallons of fresh water(Zhang & Yang 2015, pp. 880). The figure can be even larger, since one well can be used multiple times, which also requires times of the water amount. Such a problem should not be overlooked in the world where fresh water resources are becoming increasingly valuable. to save cost of transportation, the water used for fracking is usually taken from nearby water bodies around the site, which can pose a serious water shortage problem for states such as Texas and Colorado.

The underground water on earth itself forms a huge system, accounting for almost one percent of the total amount of water on earth. The major sources of underground water are precipitation and surface seepage. The underground water also become sources for rivers, lakes and swamps. It is one of the most important water bodies on earth since it is closely related to the human society. Although running right below the surface water system, the underground water system is largely isolated, hidden in the rock layers that are much more complex than surface water. In many regions, the vertical distribution of underground water system can have a range of thousands of meters (Brandon 1986, pp. 14). The drilling work done by fracking will diminish the boundary between surface water and underground water, increasing the rate of seepage in areas around the drilling sites. As a result, water shortage is more like to appear, since a substantial amount of fresh water in the surface cycle is absorbed by the rock layers, taking the place of oil and gas in it.

2.2 Toxic Chemical Contaminations

There are multiple sources of contamination that occur in the fracking process. A fraction of the water mixture that is injected into the wells flow back. However, they are not the same after flowing through the underground rock layers. In the shale layers, formation water exists, which is highly saturated with salt and radioactive gas. These are sources of contamination, including radioactive material, heavy metals and other toxic chemicals. These chemicals are originally in an isolated environment underground, but the drilling and water injection bring these up to the surface, creating risks of pollution and contamination (Norris et al. 2016, pp. 338). It is the common practice in the fracking industry to direct the wastewater into pits near the wells. The wastewater is then transported to a treatment factory to be treated. However, there are many links in the water transportation that may go wrong. For example, many of the storage pits used are not constructed with seepage prevention standards, which may cause the chemicals to be released into the ground and pollution the nearby water bodies. The large amount of flowback water to be treated is also beyond the capacity of local treatment factories, so that not all the waste water is properly treated. these chemicals that enter the hydrosphere will cause further problems to the water quality and the health of the residents. In addition to storage pits and treatment plants, the tubes used in the fracking wells are not reliable either (Live Magazine 2012, pp.9). The cement tube is likely to fracture and even fail under immense pressure. The chemicals and toxins in the wastewater will then enter and pollute the groundwater system. Loss of pressure in the wells during fracking will cause similar problems, with the fracking fluid running freely out of the wells and seeping into the underground water.

In addition to the natural source of contamination, the chemical additives in the water injected is also problematic. The addition of these chemicals is necessary since they protect the tubes from erosion and indirectly protect the environment by preventing leakage and seepage. However, these chemicals themselves are sources of contamination. In the past, no information of the names of the chemicals was required by the government, as many companies listed these information as trade secret. Even when there are requirements by the local government, the information provided by the companies may not be accurate. Consequently, there isn’t a comprehensive list of what chemicals are used in fracking, not to mention the environmental impact assessment of it. With increasing pressure from the public and the government, some companies began to disclose the names of the chemicals used. Many of the chemicals used, such as Benzene, Toluene and 2-butoxyethanol, are found to be toxic, leading to cancer and other health problems (Tollefson 2013, pp. 146). Although many companies claim that due to the low concentration of these chemicals, the fracking fluid does not pose any actual threat to public health, there is no way for one to predict how the chemicals will seep into the local hydrosphere and poison the water bodies without being noticed. It is even proved that some of the chemicals will lead to cancer even with exposure to a minimal amount of it. Moreover, the frack fluid is consumed in billions of gallons, which means even a very low concentration would mean the use of millions of gallons of chemicals.These harmful contents, together with the toxins brought from the shale deep underground, make the cost of treatment for the wastewater extremely expensive. However, the effort made is far from enough to keep the toxins from entering the environment and the hydrosphere.

2.3 The “Flammable Water” Problem

The gases that used to be stored in the shale layers have found their way to the shallow underground water system. As a result, the tap water of many American households contains bubbles of methane, which is the major component of shale gas. Many Americans are even able to light their tap water on fire due to the large concentration of methane. There are videos all over the internet recording the phenomenon, which became the major reason for the objections against fracking. It is obvious that flammable water in the US is caused by fracking, since there is no other geological activity, except for earthquakes, that can release so much methane from the rock layers and let it seep into the water system. One of the reasons of the leakage of methane is also originated from the failing of the well tubes. When the casing of the tubes fail, both methane and fluid can escape from the tube into the surface water system. As a result, the local water system becomes filled with methane, leading the water to be undrinkable. It is also possible for gas to travel from the shale layer up to the water table, since it is smaller in density. Such a process is called gas migration. With the shale layers fractured near the wells, it is more likely for the gas to be released from the rocks and travel up, with or without the tubes(Lustgarten 2009).

There have been numerous cases of gas contamination observed and reported. In a study of 60 drilling locations in New York and Pennsylvania, evidence of methane contamination was found in the local households. It has been found that the nearer these household were to the fracking wells, the more likely that their tap water is contaminated with methane.In a study published in 2013 (Jackson 2013, pp.11250), 141 water wells from Pennsylvaniawere investigated. The methane levels in the wells closer to fracking sites were found to be six times higher than those that were further away from the sites. The Ethane levels (another natural gas component commonly found in shale layers) were 23 times higher for the wells near the fracking sites. The current federal standard of the methane level in drinking water is under 28 mg/L. the study found 12 households where the methane level in tap water exceeded this level. Among these households, 11 were using wells that were close to fracking sites. Although there are also natural reasons that causes methane leakage, the correlation between fracking and methane leaking is also certain (Lustgarten 2009). the oil and natural gas companies are responsible for making more effort in reducing the methane leakage, instead of denying the correlation.

3. SOLUTIONS

Although fracking technology has gone through improvements over the years, it still has substantial influences on the hydrosphere as discussed above. Therefore, more modifications should be done on the technique itself. For example, the development of fracking without water is important. By replacing water with gas such as carbon dioxide, the water resources will be saved for better uses and a reduction of the drought problems will be possible (Moss 2013). Water is only one way of fracturing, but should not be considered the only way due to the increasingly scarce water resources. Development of waste water treatment is also important to minimize the pollution caused by fracking (Halliburton 2011, pp. 89). In the process of fracking, about 20% of the water used will return to the ground surface. Improvement storage plans for the returned water should be made. In addition, investments in the water treatment business can be made, as it is a huge market concerned the scale of the drilling business and the amount of waste water generated. There have been some ideas of treatment developed for the industry, such as the CleanWave treatment system that deals with waste water directly on site with bubbles and ions. Through proper treatment, the waste water can be reused and save cost for the oil companies as well.

The final technological improvement in fracking should be made in the construction of more durable tubes that can effectively prevent seepage without being eroded. The amount of methane escape is not only influencing the hydrosphere, but also the atmosphere, which can contribute to global warming. New regulations should be made to define clear standards of methane emissions on drilling sites. A monitoring system with infrared cameras can be set on site. Improvements in the pipes will also be required to reduce the incidence of failure. The reduction in leaks will also be beneficial for the companies, since it means a reduction in the loss of their product. In addition to the technical aspects, it is also important for government to come up with stricter policies and better management models so that all actions on the drilling sites are monitored and conforms to the environmental standards. There have also been alternatives to fracking developed in the energy industry. As mentioned above, a water-free fracking system is effective in reducing the environmental footprint of fracking. The need for draining contaminated water is significantly reduced with the use of gas.

4. CONCLUSIONS

In the northeast regions of the United States, there are rich sources of natural gas production, creating tens of thousands of jobs and billions of incomes for the local governments. Therefore, natural gas will continue to play an important role in the future energy source of the United States. The benefits of natural gas are even larger for the US in the longer term. Compared to tradition fuels, natural gas is the most environmentally friendly fuel with the lowest carbon dioxide emissions. However, the environmental implication of drilling practices in the United States is alarming. Due to the close relationship between humans and the hydrosphere, it is important to minimize the influence of fracking on it. As a technology that has only decades of history, there is still room of improvement for fracking. The impact of fracking on the hydrosphere is due to the large amounts of water consumption, chemical seepage and methane leakage. Consequently, not only the water quality of the region is affect, the health of the residents is also put at risk. Due to the large scale of application of fracking in the US, it is the responsibility of both the government and the gas companies to come up with plans of improvements for the technology, and possible alternatives for it.

REFERENCES

Brandon, T.W. & Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists 1986, Groundwater: occurrence, development, and protection, Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, London, England.

Darrah, T.H., Vengosh, A., Jackson, R.B., Warner, N.R. &Poreda, R.J. 2014, "Noble gases identify the mechanisms of fugitive gas contamination in drinking-water wells overlying the Marcellus and Barnett Shales", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 111, no. 39, pp. 14076-14081.

Davis, C. & Fisk, J.M. 2014, "Energy Abundance or Environmental Worries? Analyzing Public Support for Fracking in the United States", Review of Policy Research, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 1-16.

"Halliburton's CleanWave™ Water Treatment Technology Takes Spotlight Award at Offshore Technology Conference", 2011, Energy Weekly News, pp. 89.

Hardy, P., Tyner, W., Scotchman, I., Hester, R.E., Harrison, R.M., Broderick, J., Ward, R. & Jiang, S. 2014, Fracking, 1st ED, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge.

Holloway, M.D. & Rudd, O. 2013, Fracking: the operations and environmental consequences of hydraulic fracturing, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, NJ.

Jackson, R.B., Vengosh, A., Darrah, T.H., Warner, N.R., Down, A., Poreda, R.J., Osborn, S.G., Zhao, K. & Karr, J.D. 2013, "Increased stray gas abundance in a subset of drinking water wells near Marcellus shale gas extraction", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 110, no. 28, pp. 11250-11255.

Live Magazine. 2012. “Fracking: Economic Boom or Environmental Bust?” pp.5-121. Retrieved from: https://climatejusticetaranaki.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/live-winter12-pg4-121.pdf

Lustgarten, A. 2009. “Does Natural Gas Drilling Make Water Burn? Drilling for natural gas has caused explosions, polluted aquifers and even burning water” Scientific America, April 27, 2009.

Lustgarten, A. 2009. “Officials in Three States Pin Water Woes on Gas Drilling” ProPublica, April 26, 2009. Retrieved from: https://www.propublica.org/article/officials-in-three-states-pin-water-woes-on-gas-drilling-426.

Moss, D., 2013"Dear EarthTalk: I hear there's a greener form of fracking for natural gas and oil that uses carbon dioxide instead of water to access underground reserves. Is this really better for the environment?". Retrieved from: http://smdp.com/earth-talk-a-new-type-of-fracking/129681

Norris, J.Q., Turcotte, D.L., Moores, E.M., Brodsky, E.E. & Rundle, J.B. 2016, "Fracking in Tight Shales: What Is It, What Does It Accomplish, and What Are Its Consequences?", Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 321-351.

Schwartz, F.W. 2013, "Folk Beliefs and Fracking", Groundwater, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 479-479.

Tollefson, J. 2013, "Secrets of fracking fluids pave way for cleaner recipe: disclosure of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing will empower green chemistry", Nature, vol. 501, no. 7466, pp. 146.

Zhang, D. & Yang, T. 2015, "Environmental impacts of hydraulic fracturing in shale gas development in the United States", Petroleum Exploration and Development, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 876-883.

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